Multilingual Demographic Dictionary, second unified edition, English volume

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221

To extract information mechanically it is first necessary to code ¹ the information on the basic document ². This process consists of the translation of the information into numerical form by means of code numbers ³. The key by which this information is translated is known as a coding scheme ⁴. Such a scheme limits possible sub-division of the data, but in the ultimate tabulation or breakdown certain codes may be shown in combination. A combination of individual codes may be called a classification ⁵ (cf. 130-.7*) where the information is shown under certain heads ⁶ (cf. 110-.2) or headings ⁶.

1. code n. — code v. — coder n'., one who codes.

222

There are four fundamental operations in mechanical tabulation. Punching ¹ consists of the transfer of the information to a punched card ² sometimes called a punch card ². The information is shown on that card by punching a hole in a given position. Verification ³ is the process of checking the accuracy of the punching. Sorting ⁴ is the arrangement of cards in a certain order, and tabulation ⁵ consists of counting the cards or the information on them in certain groups and totalling ⁶ them in these groups. The mechanical tabulation of data is in process of very rapid development and new terms and operations are being introduced almost continuously. Thus mark sensing ⁷ is a process by which pencil marks on a document are automatically translated into punched holes on the same document. This operation has the effect of mechanizing the two manual processes of punching and verification.

3. verification n. — verify v. 5. tabulation n. — tabulate v.

223

The machines used in these operations are the punch ¹, verifier ², sorter ³ and tabulator ⁴. Other machines used in mechanical tabulation are the reproducer ⁵, which copies information from one punched card to another, the interpreter ⁶, which converts the information contained on the cards as punched holes into print on the card, and the collator ⁷, which is used for the comparison or merging of different packs of cards. The summary punch ⁸ is used for preparing cards, sometimes called summary cards ⁹, containing intermediate totals, which can then be used in later tabulations.

224

Adding machines ¹ are used for the processes of addition and subtraction, the term calculating machine ² being in general reserved for machines capable of performing also multiplication and division. Small calculating machines and adding machines are often referred to as desk machines ³, The multiplier ⁴ is a punched card machine, which performs certain calculations and punches the results on the cards containing the original data. Electronic computing ⁵ makes it possible to perform a large number of calculations within a very short space of time. The machines that do this are electronic computers ⁶.

225

Slide-rules ¹ are used as an aid to calculations. Nomographic methods of computation ² may also be used. A nomogram ³ is a figure (155-.2) whereby calculations can often be made at sight.

3. nomography n., the part of mathematics dealing with the construction and use of nomograms.

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-=== 220 ===
-The process of obtaining statistical data from documents not primarily designed for this purpose is called {{TextTerm|extraction|1}}. In general, whatever its source, statistical information is subjected to {{TextTerm|processing|2}} which may be {{TextTerm|manual|3}}, {{TextTerm|mechanical|4}}, {{TextTerm|electronic|5}} or a combination of these modes. Manual processing involves no equipment more complex than the {{TextTerm|desk calculator|6}}. Mechanical processing uses ''tabulating machines'' ({{RefNumber|22|4|2}}) or ''punch card'' ({{RefNumber|22|4|3}}) machines; electronic processing uses ''computers'' ({{RefNumber|13|2|2}}*). Regardless of the mode of processing, certain {{TextTerm|types of operations|7}} must be performed including {{TextTerm|editing|8}} of the data, ''tabulation'' ({{RefNumber|13|0|6}}*) and ''calculation'' ({{RefNumber|13|2|2}})and {{TextTerm|table preparation|9}}. These operations are made more or less complex depending on the mode of processing which is selected.
-{{Note|1| {{NoteTerm|Extraction}}, n. - {{NoteTerm|extract}}, v.}}
-{{Note|2| {{NoteTerm|Processing }},n. - {{NoteTerm|process}}, v. The terms to process information, data processing, are used widely.}}
-{{Note|8| {{NoteTerm|Editing}}, n. - {{NoteTerm|edit}}, v. In English, the term refers to an operation performed either on the basic document or on the machine - readable data, to correct inconsistencies or eliminate omissions. In French, edition refers to the stage of table preparation.}}
 === 221 ===
-Editing the data usually requires the prior {{TextTerm|coding|1}} of a certain number of entries on the {{TextTerm|basic document|2}}. The {{TextTerm|coding scheme|3}} establishes a correspondence between an entry and its translation into numeric or alphabetic codes. The code book collects and describes the coding schemes used with a particular set of basic documents. A coding scheme is usually designed to facilitate later groupings of the data. In contrast, a {{TextTerm|classification|4}} is a mere list of individual codes where each {{TextTerm|heading|5}} is given one or several numbers. After the data have been coded, they constitute a ''file'' ({{RefNumber|21|3|3}}*) which can be converted to machine readable form. The second stage in the editing consists in the {{TextTerm|cleaning|6}} of the file, through elimination of errors by {{TextTerm|validity checks|7}} and {{TextTerm|consistency checks|7}}; these can be internal checks within each ''statistical unit'' (cf. {{RefNumber|11|0|1}}) or may result from the comparison of different units. After errors have been identified, they may be corrected in the original document or the file by some automatic procedure.
+To extract information mechanically it is first necessary to {{TextTerm|code|1|221}} the information on the {{TextTerm|basic document|2|221|OtherIndexEntry=document, basic}}. This process consists of the translation of the information into numerical form by means of {{TextTerm|code numbers|3|221|IndexEntry=cluster number|OtherIndexEntry=number, code}}. The key by which this information is translated is known as a {{TextTerm|coding scheme|4|221|OtherIndexEntry=scheme, coding}}. Such a scheme limits possible sub-division of the data, but in the ultimate tabulation or breakdown certain codes may be shown in combination. A combination of individual codes may be called a {{TextTerm|classification|5|221}} (cf. {{RefNumber|13|0|.7}}*) where the information is shown under certain {{TextTerm|heads|6|221|IndexEntry=head}} (cf. {{RefNumber|11|0|.2}}) or {{TextTerm|headings|6|221|2|IndexEntry=heading}}.
-{{Note|1| {{NoteTerm|Code}}, n. - {{NoteTerm|code}}, v. - {{NoteTerm|coding}}, n.}}
+{{Note|1| {{NoteTerm|code}} n. — {{NoteTerm|code}} v. — {{NoteTerm|coder}} n''''''., one who codes.}}
 === 222 ===
-The edited data are rarely used directly; they are subjected to ''grouping'' ({{RefNumber|13|0|7}}) and ''tabulation'' ({{RefNumber|13|0|6}}*), and this normally leads to a presentation in the form of ''statistical tables'' ({{RefNumber|13|1|4}}). These may be the outcome of {{TextTerm|sorting|1}}, either manual or mechanical, resulting in the reorganization of the elements in a set according to predetermined rules, or more simply of a systematic count of the elements presenting a selected characteristic. The choice of elements or of characteristics may be based on the values of one or several quantitative attributes, or on the {{TextTerm|modalities|2}} of one or several qualitative attributes. Few studies can do without computation, simple or complex, isolated or repetitive, and the ''computer'' ({{RefNumber|22|5|2}}) now allows calculation that would have been too lengthy by hand. These capabilities have led to the development of techniques of {{NoteTerm|data analysis}} . Deterministic and stochastic ''models'' (cf. {{RefNumber|73|0|}}) often require considerable computations, and so do ''simulations'' ({{RefNumber|73|0|6}}).
+There are four fundamental operations in mechanical tabulation. {{TextTerm|Punching|1|222}} consists of the transfer of the information to a {{TextTerm|punched card|2|222|OtherIndexEntry=card, punched}} sometimes called a {{TextTerm|punch card|2|222|2|OtherIndexEntry=card, punch}}. The information is shown on that card by punching a hole in a given position. {{TextTerm|Verification|3|222}} is the process of checking the accuracy of the punching. {{TextTerm|Sorting|4|222}} is the arrangement of cards in a certain order, and {{TextTerm|tabulation|5|222}} consists of counting the cards or the information on them in certain groups and {{TextTerm|totalling|6|222}} them in these groups. The mechanical tabulation of data is in process of very rapid development and new terms and operations are being introduced almost continuously. Thus {{TextTerm|mark sensing|7|222|OtherIndexEntry=sensing, mark}} is a process by which pencil marks on a document are automatically translated into punched holes on the same document. This operation has the effect of mechanizing the two manual processes of punching and verification.
-{{Note|1| {{NoteTerm|Sorting}}, n. - {{NoteTerm|sort}}, v.}}
+{{Note|3| {{NoteTerm|verification}} n. — {{NoteTerm|verify}} v. 5. {{NoteTerm|tabulation}} n. — {{NoteTerm|tabulate}} v.}}
 === 223 ===
-The stage of ''table preparation'' ({{RefNumber|22|0|9}}) aims at making the results of processing conveniently available in the form of {{TextTerm|listings|1}}, ''numerical tables'' ({{RefNumber|13|1|4}}) or ''charts'' ({{RefNumber|15|5|2}}), all of which are commonly used in {{TextTerm|descriptive statistics|2}}. The use of {{TextTerm|computer graphing|3}} and {{TextTerm|computer cartography|3}} permits the mass production of graphical presentation at a preliminary stage.
+The machines used in these operations are the {{TextTerm|punch|1|223}}, {{TextTerm|verifier|2|223}}, {{TextTerm|sorter|3|223}} and {{TextTerm|tabulator|4|223}}. Other machines used in mechanical tabulation are the {{TextTerm|reproducer|5|223}}, which copies information from one punched card to another, the {{TextTerm|interpreter|6|223}}, which converts the information contained on the cards as punched holes into print on the card, and the {{TextTerm|collator|7|223}}, which is used for the comparison or merging of different packs of cards. The {{TextTerm|summary punch|8|223|OtherIndexEntry=punch summary}} is used for preparing cards, sometimes called {{TextTerm|summary cards|9|223|IndexEntry=summary card|OtherIndexEntry=card summary}}, containing intermediate totals, which can then be used in later tabulations.
 === 224 ===
-Purely ''mechanical processing'' ({{RefNumber|22|0|4}}) did not involve the use of {{TextTerm|electronic equipment|1}} which has come to replace the earlier {{TextTerm|tabulating machines|2}} or {{TextTerm|unit record machines|2}} and is much more versatile. In most instances the information is ''coded'' ({{RefNumber|22|1|1}}*) first, and then transcribed onto {{TextTerm|punch cards|3}} by using a {{TextTerm|keypunch|4}}. A {{TextTerm|card verifier|5}} is a device used to check the accuracy of the punching. These two types of unit record machines remain in common use since the punch cards are still a frequent way of entering data into the computer. The use of other types of unit record equipment such as the {{TextTerm|card sorter|6}} and the {{TextTerm|tabulator|7}} has declined. Increasingly, the data are entered directly on ''magnetic tapes'' (cf. {{RefNumber|22|6|4}}) or ''disks'' (cf. {{RefNumber|22|6|5}}) without resorting to ''punch cards.''
+{{TextTerm|Adding machines|1|224|IndexEntry=adding machine|OtherIndexEntry=machine, adding}} are used for the processes of addition and subtraction, the term {{TextTerm|calculating machine|2|224|OtherIndexEntry=machine, calculating}} being in general reserved for machines capable of performing also multiplication and division. Small calculating machines and adding machines are often referred to as {{TextTerm|desk machines|3|224|IndexEntry=desk machine|OtherIndexEntry=machine, desk}}, The {{TextTerm|multiplier|4|224}} is a punched card machine, which performs certain calculations and punches the results on the cards containing the original data. {{TextTerm|Electronic computing|5|224|OtherIndexEntry=computing, electronic}} makes it possible to perform a large number of calculations within a very short space of time. The machines that do this are {{TextTerm|electronic computers|6|224|IndexEntry=electronic computer|OtherIndexEntry=computer, electronic}}.
-{{Note|3| {{NoteTerm|Punch cards}} or {{NoteTerm|punched cards}}.}}
-{{Note|4| {{NoteTerm|Keypunch}} or {{NoteTerm|card punch}}.}}
 === 225 ===
-Demographic research depends heavily on {{TextTerm|electronic data processing|1}} using the {{TextTerm|computer|2}}. The term {{TextTerm|hardware|3}} refers to the physical component, whereas {{TextTerm|software|4}} supplies the {{TextTerm|user|5}} with ways to have access to the computer. {{TextTerm|Computer specialists|6}} include {{TextTerm|programmers|7}} who write {{TextTerm|programs|8}} conceived by {{TextTerm|system analysts|9}}.
+{{TextTerm|Slide-rules|1|225|IndexEntry=slide-rule}} are used as an aid to calculations. {{TextTerm|Nomographic methods of computation|2|225|IndexEntry=nomographic method of computation|OtherIndexEntry=computation, nomographic method of}} may also be used. A {{TextTerm|nomogram|3|225}} is a figure ({{RefNumber|15|5|.2}}) whereby calculations can often be made at sight.
+{{Note|3| {{NoteTerm|nomography n}}., the part of mathematics dealing with the construction and use of nomograms.}}
-=== 226 ===
-The ''hardware'' ({{RefNumber|22|5|3}}) components of a ''computer'' ({{RefNumber|22|5|2}}) include one or several {{TextTerm|central processing units|1}}, a {{TextTerm|central memory|2}}, one or more {{TextTerm|mass storage devices|3}} which use {{TextTerm|magnetic tapes|4}} or {{TextTerm|disks|5}} and a set of {{TextTerm|input - output devices|6}}. The ''software'' ({{RefNumber|22|5|4}}) components include the {{TextTerm|operating system|7}}, which has the task of efficiently managing the available {{TextTerm|facilities|8}} for the ''users'' ({{RefNumber|22|5|5}}) running the {{TextTerm|users’ programs|8}} and the {{TextTerm|processing programs|9}} which are preestablished ''programs'' ({{RefNumber|22|5|8}}) designed for the solution of standard problems.
-=== 227 ===
-A ''user'' ({{RefNumber|22|5|5}}) can process his problem by writing a ''program'' ({{RefNumber|22|5|8}}) in a general {{TextTerm|programming language|1}} such as Fortran, Cobol, Basic or Algol, or a specific language, designed to use the ''processing programs'' ({{RefNumber|22|6|9}}) stored in the ''central memory'' ({{RefNumber|22|6|2}}) of the computer such as a {{TextTerm|data base management system|2}} used to create and maintain a {{TextTerm|data bank|2}}, a {{TextTerm|survey processing program|3}} or a {{TextTerm|statistical package|4}}. The devices which are used to enter and receive information from the computer can differ according to the mode of processing. {{TextTerm|In batch processing|7}}, the normal input and output units are the {{TextTerm|card reader|5}} and the {{TextTerm|line printer|6}}. A {{TextTerm|console|8}} is the normal input and output unit for processing in a {{TextTerm|timesharing mode|9}}. In either instance the entry units may be spatially separated from the computer and processing under these conditions is accomplished by {{TextTerm|remote terminal|10}}.
-{{Note|1| In addition to ''programming languages'' as defined above, other types of languages can be used to manipulate the ''operating system;'' these are usually referred to as {{NoteTerm|job control language}}.}}
-=== 228 ===
-Any information processed in a ''computer'' ({{RefNumber|22|5|2}}) undergoes three main phases. First, {{TextTerm|data entry|1}} or {{TextTerm|input|1}} which may be done by using ''punched cards'' ({{RefNumber|22|4|3}}*) or by using an {{TextTerm|on line|2}} device such as a ''keyboard console'' ({{RefNumber|22|7|8}}). Data which is already stored in the computer may be accessed from either ''central memory'' ({{RefNumber|22|6|2}}) or from one of the ''mass storage devices'' ({{RefNumber|22|6|3}}) and used as ''input data.'' The second phase, ''processing'' ({{RefNumber|22|0|2}}), is divided into two main types: {{TextTerm|numerical processing|4}} and {{TextTerm|non-numerical processing|5}}. Statistical or arithmetic computations are normally the operations contained in the former while data manipulation operations are the focus in the latter. In a third phase, occasionally referred to as output phase, the {{TextTerm|processed results|6}} or {{TextTerm|output|6}} may be printed out on the ''line printer'' ({{RefNumber|22|7|6}}) or saved as a file on a ''mass storage device'' ({{RefNumber|22|6|3}}) for further processing. Results may also be diverted to a {{TextTerm|plotter|7}} to obtain processed results in the form of a graph or a figure.
+==<center><font size=12>* * * </font></center>==
 {{SummaryShort}}
 {{OtherLanguages|22}}

Multilingual Demographic Dictionary, second unified edition, English volume

Difference between revisions of "22"

Revision as of 20:40, 7 November 2009

221

222

223

224

225

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